Lesson plans: Maneuvers

http://leaviation.com/wp-content/uploads/All%20Site%20Files/Employee_Docs/Flight_School/Standardization_Manuals/Cessna_152_Standardization.pdf

Taxi

Why?

An airplane isn't meant to drive around, so it doesn't do it very well, so learning to taxi properly is really very important.

How?

Get a clearance to taxi (if required), and read it back

Controlled/ uncontrolled.
Movement/ non-movement area

Do a brake check before getting rolling
Position controls for wind: dive away from, turn into wind
Use rudders for steering: small control movements
THROTTLE controls speed, not brakes. Use brakes very sparingly. Taxi at walking pace
Follow the appropriate markings and signs, and go according to clearance

Common errors:

Trying to steer with the yoke.
Yoke not positioned correctly for wind
Not on the centerline
Poor speed control: brakes instead of throttle
Over controlling
Hand not on throttle
Disorientation

Takeoff and landings

Normal takeoff

Perform all appropriate checklists and briefings
After cleared for takeoff ( if controlled) Check the approach path is clear and then taxi into takeoff position, line up with the runway and smoothly apply full throttle

If uncontrolled, make all appropriate radio calls, and be cautious when entering the runway

Perform mist check

Mixture
Instruments
Seatbelts
Time/transponder

Call out “airspeed alive”. When rotation speed is reached, pitch to Vx ( if climbing over an obstacle 55, IAS) or Vy (faster climb in a given time, 67 IAS). and trim as necessary
Continue climb to desired altitude. Every 200’ pitch the nose down or do S turns to watch for traffic
Common errors

Failure to adequately clear the area prior to taxiing into position on the active runway
Failure to check engine instruments for signs of malfunction after applying takeoff power
Failure to attain proper lift-off attitude
Inadequate compensation for torque/P-factor during initial climb resulting in a side-slip
Over-Control of elevators during initial climb out
Failure to attain/maintain best rate-of-climb airspeed (Vy)

Crosswind takeoff and climb

Same procedure as normal takeoff
Use wind component graph

Soft field takeoff

Why?

Taxing and taking off a soft runway (grass) and you want to “protect “ your nose wheel

How?

Taxi

When you start taxing to the active runway, apply aft pressure on the elevator. this will decrease the pressure on the nose wheel

Takeoff

Follow all appropriate checklists
Once you are cleared to takeoff, you will begin entering the runway while applying back pressure on the elevator
Once you are lined you will progressively increase the throttle to full while maintaining back pressure on the elevator.

Also remember to make appropriate call-outs, (instruments, heading,speed)

As the aircraft speeds up, it will become light on the nose wheel and eventually the nose wheel will pick up
When it picks up, decrease back pressure on the yoke enough to maintain a controlled attitude
The aircraft will continue speeding up until lift off - after lift off, pitch forward to become parallel with the runway while maintaining in ground effect
Once rotation speed is reached, pitch back and climb at Vx or Vy

Common errors

Failure to adequately clear the area
Insufficient back-elevator pressure during initial takeoff roll
Tail strike
Failure to cross-check engine instruments for indications of proper operation
Poor directional control
Climbing too steeply after lift-off
Allowing the airplane settle resulting in an inadvertent touchdown
Attempting to climb out of ground effect area before attaining sufficient climb speed
Failure to anticipate an increase in pitch attitude as the airplane climbs out of ground effect

Short field takeoff

Why?

Short runway, obstacles. we want to gain as much altitude we can in the shortest distance

How?

Go through the appropriate checklists
Request to line up with the runway
Apply full breaks, 10ºflaps, and full throttle
Upon engine peak, release brakes, maintaining runway centerline with the rudder pedals
As you start to roll, monitor your airspeed

call-out: "Airspeed Alive"

At Vr, call out, "Rotate" and increase control yoke back pressure to pitch up

Smoothly pitch up or the aircraft may delay a climb
Forcing the aircraft off the ground may leave it stuck in ground effect or stall

After liftoff, establish and maintain Vx (55 IAS) until all obstacles are cleared, while maintaining the flight path over the runway centerline

Trim as necessary

With obstacles cleared, lower the pitch to begin accelerating to Vy (67 IAS)
At or above safe flying speed , retract the flaps to 0°

Establish and maintain Vy
Trim as necessary

Common errors

Failure to adequately clear the area prior to taxiing into position on the active runway
Insufficient back-elevator pressure during initial takeoff roll
Failure to cross-check engine instruments for indicators of proper operation
Poor directional control
Climbing too steeply after liftoff
Allowing the airplane to "mush" or settle, resulting in an inadvertent touchdown after liftoff
Attempting to climb out of ground effect area before attaining sufficient climb speed
Failure to anticipate an increase in pitch attitude as the airplane climbs out of ground effect

Normal landing

Downwind

Slow the aircraft to 90 KIAS (approximately 2200 RPM)
When on downwind, do downwind checklist ( if straight-in, also do downwind check)

Mixture full rich
Instruments in the green
Seatbelts on and secure
Carb. heat on
Landing light (required for commercial operations at night)
Fuel shut off valve off
Request landing (full stop/ touch and go/ stop and go

Abeam the landing spot, pull throttle to 1500 - 1700 rpm
When IAS is below the white arc (85 KIAS ) apply flaps to 10°, allow aircraft to settle
Pitch/trim for a 80 KIAS descent

Base

Apply 20° flaps
Pitch/trim for a 70 KIAS descent

Final

Pitch and trim for 60 KIAS +/- 5, flaps to 30° if necessary → Follow glide slope if available
REMEMBER → pitch for airspeed, power for altitude
Final checklist

Positive aircraft control
Center line
Stabilized approach

Focus your eyes on the end of the runway, start your flare when close to the ground

Peripheral vision helps
Power to idle and gently give aft pressure on the elevator as necessary to flare, landing on main gears first

Common errors

Inadequate wind drift correction on the base leg
Overshooting or undershooting the turn onto final approach
Failure to complete the landing checklist in a timely manner
Unstabilized approach
Attempting to maintain altitude or reach the runway using elevator alone
Failure to hold sufficient back-elevator pressure after touchdown
Excessive braking after touchdown

Soft field landing

Why?

Designed to protect the nose wheel and eliminate risk of rough landing caused by tall grass, soft sand, mud or snow.

How?

Follow same steps as in a normal landing
Add a little power before touchdown
After touchdown, remove power and keep nose wheel off the ground for as long as possible
Do not apply breaks
Maintain back pressure for taxi

Common errors

Too fast of a descent rate, causing a hard touchdown
Too much airspeed, causing excessive float
Unstabilized approach, making it hard to touch down smoothly
Allowing the nose wheel to touch down early, causing excessive stress on the nose wheel

Short field landing

Why?

The goal is to maximize aircraft performance in order to safely and accurately land when runway distance is limited
The approach is made with minimum engine power commensurate with flying towards the aiming point on the runway resulting in a steeper approach

How?

Select and declare a touchdown point.
Landing checklist
Abeam touchdown point: Power to 15’’-17", below 85 IAS , 1 notch flaps. Pitch for 80. Trim
Turn base. Second notch flaps. Pitch for 70. Trim.
Turn final. Third notch flaps. Pitch for 60 and steep approach. Adjust power as necessary. (Hand on throttle)
Short final, speed 55
When field is made: power to idle. Flare. (little or no float). Land at stall speed.
Touchdown with main wheels first within 100′ beyond or on the specified point
Retract flaps to minimize lift and maximize weight on the wheels
Apply the brakes and position the elevator control as necessary to stop in the shortest possible distance consistent with safety.
After-landing checklist.

Common errors

Erratic descent rate, airspeed, pitch
Uncontrolled flare
Long touchdown/float

Performance maneuvers

Chandelle

What?

A combat maneuver to make the enemy aircraft stall

Why?

Develops the pilot's coordination, orientation, planning and feel for maximum performance flight

How?

Clearing turn
Pre maneuver checklist
Put wing on reference spot (cross check with Heading indicator )
First 90º constant bank with changing pitch, second 90º constant pitch with changing bank
Turn into 30º bank, smoothly add full power, slowly start pitching up
After first 90º, maintain pitch and slowly start rolling out to arrive at the 180° point with the wings level (reference point off from the opposite wing) and at minimum controllable airspeed
Airplane Flying Handbook, Chandelle

Common errors

Failure to adequately clear the area
Too shallow an initial bank, resulting in a stall
Too steep an initial bank, resulting in failure to gain maximum performance
Allowing the pitch attitude to increase as the bank is rolled out during the second 90° of turn
Removing all of the bank before the 180° point is reached
Nose low on recovery, resulting in too much airspeed
Poor coordination (slipping or skidding)
Failure to scan for other aircraft
Attempting to perform the maneuver by instrument reference rather than visual reference

Lazy 8’s

Why?

Develops coordination of controls through a wide range of airspeeds and altitudes, so that certain accuracy points are reached with planned attitude and airspeed

How?

Clearing turn
Pre maneuver checklist
Adjust the pitch and power to maintain altitude and set cruise power

Trim as necessary

Pick 45°, 90°, and 135° reference points on or out to the horizon

Start with your wing on the 90° reference point

Bank 5º, slowly increase pitch
45º thru → half bank and full pitch
From the 90° reference point, you’ll be at full bank.

Allow the pitch attitude to continue decreasing and initiate a slow decrease in the bank angle, continuing a descending turn in the direction of the 135° reference.

From the 135° reference point, you’ll be at half bank and full pitch down.

Continue decreasing the bank angle while allowing the pitch to increase so that the airplane returns to the entry airspeed and altitude by the 180° reference point

From the 180° point, immediately commence a climbing turn in the opposite direction, repeating the steps above
Upon completion of the maneuver, resume normal cruise
Re-trim as necessary

Common errors

Failure to adequately clear the area
Inadequate planning, resulting in the peaks of the loops both above and below the horizon not coming in the proper place
Persistent gain or loss of altitude with the completion of each eight
Slipping and/or skidding
Failure to scan for other traffic

Steep turns

Why?

Develops smoothness, coordination, orientation, division of attention and control techniques necessary for maximum performance turns
Bank angles of 45° to 60° are considered "steep"

How?

Perform clearing turns
Select a prominent visual reference point ahead of the airplane and out toward the horizon
Adjust the pitch and power to maintain altitude

Trim as necessary

Maintain heading and note the pitch attitude required for level flight
Roll into a 45° bank or 50° bank in the direction previously cleared

Trim nose up
Remain coordinated

Rolling through 30° of bank, increase power to maintain airspeed

Increase pitch to maintain altitude
Trim as necessary
Pull back on the yoke will increase rate of turn but do not allow the aircraft to climb

Reference the visual point selected earlier and roll out 20-25° before entry heading
Through 30° of bank, decrease RPM

Decrease pitch
Trim nose down

Return to wings level on entry heading, altitude, and airspeed
Immediately roll into a bank in the opposite direction

Perform the maneuver once more in the opposite direction

Upon rolling out after the second turn, resume normal cruise

Trim as necessary

Common errors

Failure to adequately clear the area
Inadequate back-elevator pressure as power is reduced, resulting in altitude loss
Excessive back-elevator pressure as power is reduced, resulting in a climb, followed by a rapid reduction in airspeed and "mushing"
Fixation on the airspeed indicator
Inadequate power management
Inability to adequately divide attention between airplane control and orientation

Steep spirals

Why?

Steep Spirals simulate an emergency situation where an aircraft is required to descend as rapidly as possible to a forced landing

How?

Select an altitude where recovery will occur no lower than 1,500' AGL
Determine wind direction and perform clearing turns
Select a reference point in an area where an emergency landing can be made if necessary
Generally, enter on downwind
Fly almost directly over the reference point
Approaching the reference point:

Enrichen the mixture

Abeam the reference point:

Reduce the throttle to idle
Roll into a steep bank (not to exceed 60°)
Maintain a constant radius
Adjust pitch to maintain best glide speed
As the wind direction changes in the spiral, adjust bank angle to maintain a constant radius around the reference point
Clear the engine on the upwind legs every turn

Operating the engine at idle speed for prolonged periods may result in excessive engine cooling or spark plug fouling
Check engine operation during the glide by "clearing" the engine on every upwind (to minimize any variation in ground-speed and turn radius)
Conduct a series of at least three 360° turns
Complete the maneuver on entry heading and set cruise power
Recover above 1500' AGL unless combining the maneuver with an Emergency Approach and Landing

Common errors

Failure to adequately clear the area
Excessive pitch change during entry or recovery
Attempts to start recovery prematurely
Failure to stop the turn on a precise heading
Inadequate power management and airspeed control
Attempting to perform the maneuver by instrument reference rather than visual reference
Poor coordination, resulting in skidding and/or slipping
Failure to coordinate the controls, so that no increase/decrease in speed results when straight glide is resumed
Failure to scan for other traffic
Failure to maintain orientation

Slow flight, stalls, and spins

Slow flight

What ?

Anytime an aircraft is flying near the stalling speed or the region of reversed command, such as in final approach for a normal landing, the initial part of a go around, or maneuvering in slow flight, it is operating in what is called slow-speed flight

Why?

Develops the ability to recognize changes in aircraft flight characteristics and control effectiveness at critically slow airspeeds

How?

Clearing turn
Pre maneuver checklist
Pull throttle to 15
Flaps 10º, 20º 30º
Trim aircraft for airspeed
Add throttle as necessary to maintain altitude
Recover with full throttle and gradually decreasing flaps

Common errors

Failure to adequately clear the area
Inadequate back-elevator pressure as power is reduced, resulting in altitude loss
Excessive back-elevator pressure as power is reduced, resulting in a climb, followed by a rapid reduction in airspeed and "mushing"
Inadequate compensation for adverse yaw during turns
Fixation on the airspeed indicator
Inadequate power management
Inability to adequately divide attention between airplane control and orientation

Stalls

A stall is an aerodynamic condition which occurs when smooth airflow over the airplane’s wings is disrupted, resulting in loss of lift.
A stall occurs when the critical AOA is reached
It is possible to exceed the critical AOA at any airspeed, at any attitude, and at any power setting.
Power on stall
Why?
To simulate a stall on takeoff, go around, climb, or when trying to clear an obstacle
How?

Select an altitude where recovery will occur no lower than 1500' AGL
Clearing turn
Pre maneuver checklist
Decrease speed to rotation speed
Full throttle and pitch up until stall
Recover by pitching forward

Power off stall

Why?

To simulate a stall during landing

How?

Select an altitude where recovery will occur no lower than 1500' AGL
Clearing turn
Pre maneuver checklist
Pull throttle to 1500
Flaps 10º, 20º, 30º
Airspeed 60
Pitch up until stall

Recovery

Pitch down and add rudder as necessary
Increase power and gradually raise flaps

Accelerated stall

The objectives of demonstrating an accelerated stall are to determine the stall characteristics of the airplane, experience stalls at speeds greater than the +1G stall speed, and develop the ability to instinctively recover at the onset of such stalls.
Stalls encountered any time the G-load exceeds +1G are called“accelerated maneuver stalls

Select an altitude where recovery will occur no lower than 1500' AGL
Clearing turn
Slow down to maneuvering speed (Va)
Enter a level 45º turn
Apply back pressure on the elevator until stall
Recover with forward pressure

Secondary Stall

Why?

Occurs after recovery from a preceding stall.
Typically caused by abrupt control inputs or attempting to return to the desired flightpath too quickly and the critical AOA is exceeded a second time.
It can also occur when the pilot does not sufficiently reduce the AOA by lowering the pitch attitude or attempts to break the stall by using power only

Select an altitude where recovery will occur no lower than 1500' AGL
Perform clearing turns
Perform a power-off stall or power-on stall as directed
At the stall, call out, "stalling"

Recovery

Reduce the angle of attack to regain control effectiveness
Add full power to regain airspeed
Maintain coordinated use of the ailerons and rudder to level the wings and prevent entering into a spin
Immediately increase the pitch attitude to induce another (secondary) stall
At the stall, callout, "stalling," reduce the angle of attack to regain control effectiveness
Add full power to regain airspeed
Maintain coordinated use of the ailerons and rudder to level the wings and prevent entering into a spin
Adjust pitch to the Vx attitude, re-trimming as necessary and minimizing altitude loss
With a positive rate of climb established:

As airspeed increases, raise the flaps in increments, to 10 °:

Too abrupt of flap retraction will result in a dramatic loss of lift and possibly stall

Complete cruise checklist, returning to the altitude, heading, and airspeed required

Cross-Control Stall

Why?

Shows the effects of uncoordinated flight on stall behavior and to emphasize the importance of maintaining coordinated flight while making turns.
Occurs when the critical AOA is exceeded with aileron pressure applied in one direction and rudder pressure in the opposite direction, causing uncoordinated flight.

Clear the area
Select an altitude where recovery will occur no lower than 1500' AGL
Choose forced landing area
Configure aircraft for final approach for landing,

Power at 1500 rpm
Flaps up (flaps down will lead to excessive loads)
Carburetor heat on

Select outside references
Reduce power to idle
Maintain altitude until a normal glide and trim to relieve control pressures
Roll into a medium bank turn (20°-30°) once on simulated approach
Apply heavy rudder pressure in the direction of the turn (skidding turn)
Apply opposite aileron pressure to maintain the bank
Increase back elevator pressure to keep the nose from lowering
Increase all flight control pressures until airplane stalls

Recovery

Immediately release all control pressures and, if necessary, allow the roll to continue until airplane reaches upright and level flight
Increase power to full to climb and recover
Maintain ball centered
Look for traffic

Elevator Trim Stall

Why ?

Shows what can happen when the pilot applies full power for a go-around or a simulated forced-landing approach without maintaining positive control of the airplane.
The demonstration is to show the importance of making smooth power applications, overcoming strong trim forces, maintaining positive control of the airplane to hold safe flight attitudes, and using proper and timely trim techniques.

How?

Clear the area
Select an altitude where recovery will occur no lower than 1500' AGL
Choose forced landing area
Configure aircraft for final approach for landing: approach power, 1500 RPM), full flaps down, carburetor heat on
Select outside references
Reduce power to idle
Maintain altitude until normal glide speed is reached (60 KIAS)
Trim nose up (full up for best effect) to simulate landing approach to maintain final approach speed
Apply full power to simulate a go-around

The combined forces of power, engine torque, back elevator trim will make the nose pitch up sharply with a left-turning tendency; as the pitch attitude increases to a point well above normal climb attitude, the potential for a stall exists

Recovery

Immediately apply positive forward elevator pressure to lower nose and return to normal climbing attitude
Trim to relieve excessive control pressure
Continue normal go-around procedures and level off at the desired altitude
Maintain ball centered
Look for traffic

Spins

Exhibits instructional knowledge of the elements of spins by describing:

a. Anxiety factors associated with spin instruction.

Fear of spins is deeply rooted in the public’s mind and many pilots have an aversion to them

Learning the cause and proper procedure to prevent/recover will remove some of the anxiety ( Increases spin awareness as well as confidence)

b. Aerodynamics of spins.

Requirements for a Spin

The airplane must be in a stall
The airplane must be in uncoordinated flight

Often one wing will drop at the beginning of a stall causing the nose to yaw to the low wing

This is where rudder is important during a stall - Maintaining directional control to avert a spin
If the airplane is allowed to yaw, one wing will drop in the direction of the yaw (the other will rise)
Lowered Wing

Unless rudder is used to correct the yaw, the airplane will begin to slip to the lowered wing

The airplane also continues to roll toward the lowered wing

The lowered wing has an increasingly greater AOA due to the upward motion of the relative wind

It is then well beyond the critical AOA and suffers an extreme loss of lift and increase in drag

Raised Wing

The rising wing has a smaller/decreasing AOA

The rising wing is less stalled and develops some lift causing the airplane to continue rolling

c. Airplanes approved for the spin maneuver based on airworthiness category and type certificate.

To determine if spins are approved check:

Type Certificate and Data Sheets
AFM/POH – Limitations section
Placard in the airplane stating, “No acrobatic maneuvers including spins approved”

Also Check:

Weight and Balance limitations
Recommended entry and recovery procedures

d. Relationship of various factors such as configuration, weight, center of gravity, and control coordination to spins.

Configuration

Flaps - will generally increase the lifting ability of the wings and therefore decrease stall speed

Weight

An increased weight increases the stall speed since it requires a higher AOA to produce the lift necessary to support the additional weight

The critical AOA will be exceeded at a higher airspeed

Center of Gravity (CG)

Minor weight or balance changes can alter spin characteristics

The changes may allow operation within the CG but could affect recovery characteristics

As the CG moves Aft – the airplane flies at a lower AOA (reducing back pressure and drag)

This lowers the stall speed – The critical AOA will be exceeded at a lower airspeed
This decreases stability

An extremely aft CG makes spin recovery hard as the airplane loses its tendency to pitch down

The shorter the arm from the elevator to the CG, the less force the elevator is able to produce making recovery more difficult
An extremely aft CG may result in a flat spin and recovery may be impossible

A forward CG - the airplane flies at a higher AOA and will stall at a higher airspeed (increased lift and drag)

But, recovery will be easier as the nose will want to pitch down
There also is a longer arm from the CG to the elevator which produces more force making recovery from stalls easier

Control Coordination

Uncoordinated flight is what results in a spin

Stall + Yaw = Spin

e. Flight situations where unintentional spins may occur.

Stall + Yaw = Spin
The primary cause is stalling the airplane while executing an uncoordinated turn
Spins can occur while practicing stalls with uncoordinated controls or aileron deflection at critical AOA
Critical phases of flight include Takeoff/Departure, Approach/Landing, and Engine Failure

f. How to recognize and recover from imminent, unintentional spins.

Continued stall (and spin) recovery practice

A spin is dependent on yawing during a stall – Don’t let the airplane yaw during a stall

g. Entry procedure and minimum entry altitude for intentional spins.

Preflight
Special emphasis on excess/loose items that may affect weight, CG, controllability of the airplane
Pre-Maneuver

Checklist

Mixture RICH
Carb. heat
Lights ON
Gauges GREEN

Clear the Area - Above and Below
Altitude - Above 3,500’ AGL so recovery can be completed at or above 1,500’ AGL

Approximately 500’ is lost per 3 second turn

Entry Phase

Where the pilot provides the necessary elements for the spin (accidentally or intentionally)
Similar to a power off stall Reduce power to idle while simultaneously raising the nose to a stalling pitch attitude

As the stall approaches, smoothly apply full rudder in the direction of desired spin while applying full (to the limit) back elevator pressure

Keep ailerons neutral
Reduce power to idle on spin entry

h. Control procedure to maintain a stabilized spin.

Maintain full back pressure, to keep wings stalled
Maintain full rudder in the direction of the turn, to keep yawing
Maintain neutral ailerons

i. Orientation during a spin.

Select an outside reference point and use the turn coordinator
Gyroscopic Instruments may tumble and be misleading (heading indicator, attitude indicator)
The turn coordinator can provide the best reference as to the direction of the spin

j. Recovery procedure and minimum recovery altitude for intentional spins.

Occurs when the AOA of the wings decrease below the critical AOA and autorotation slows. Then, the nose steepens and rotation stops
Step 1 – POWER IDLE Power aggravates the spin characteristics, resulting in a flatter spin and increased rotation
Step 2 – AILERONS NEUTRAL Ailerons may have an adverse effect on recovery

Ailerons in the direction of the spin may speed the rotation, delaying recovery
Ailerons opposite the spin may cause the down aileron to force a deeper stall

Step 3 – RUDDER OPPOSITE THE ROTATION
Step 4 - ELEVATOR FORWARD To break the stall apply a positive/brisk, straight forward movement of the elevator

Immediately after full rudder application and hold firmly in this position
This will decrease the AOA and break the stall

Step 5 – RUDDER NEUTRAL

If not neutral the increased airspeed will cause a yawing or skidding effect
Also, if the stall is not broken and full rudder is held in the opposite direction a spin can quickly start again in the new direction

Step 6 – ELEVATOR BACK PRESSURE

Once broken, raise the nose to level flight - Be careful of a secondary stall and exceeding load limits

2. Exhibits instructional knowledge of common errors related to spins by describing:

a. Failure to establish proper configuration prior to spin entry.
b. Failure to achieve and maintain a full stall during spin entry.
c. Failure to close throttle when a spin entry is achieved.
d. Failure to recognize the indications of an imminent, unintentional spin.
e. Improper use of flight controls during spin entry, rotation, or recovery.
f. Disorientation during a spin.
g. Failure to distinguish between a high-speed spiral and a spin.
h. Excessive speed or accelerated stall during recovery.
i. Failure to recover with minimum loss of altitude.

k. Hazards of attempting to spin an airplane not approved for spins.

Why?

Practicing spins build awareness regarding the recognition of, entry into, and recovery from spins
A spin is an aggravated stall that results in what is termed “autorotation,” wherein the airplane follows a downward corkscrew path.

How?

Select a safe location

Spins will result in large losses of altitude and so they should be performed free from high traffic areas
Always broadcast your intentions over the appropriate deconfliction frequencies, if available

Select a safe altitude

Generally this should be no lower than 6000' AGL
The intent is to have enough altitude to enter the spin, stabilize, and recover with plenty of safety margin

Perform clearing turns

You are going to lose a lot of altitude so be sure to check below you in addition to around you

Reduce power , adjusting pitch (trimming) to maintain altitude

The use of power at the entry will assure more consistent and positive entries to the spin

At the first indication of stall (entry phase):

Smoothly pull the elevator control to the full aft position
Just prior to reaching the stall "break," apply rudder in the desired direction of spin rotation so that full rudder deflection is achieved almost simultaneously with reaching full aft elevator

As the spin is entered (incipient phase), reduce the throttle to the idle position and ensure that the ailerons are in the neutral position
Hold the elevator and rudder controls in full until the spin recovery is initiated (developed phase)

Verify that the throttle is in the idle position to avoid over-speeding the aircraft

Apply and HOLD full rudder opposite to the direction of the rotation

Just after the rudder reaches the stop, move the control wheel briskly forward, far enough to break the stall
HOLD these flight control inputs until the rotation stops

As the rotation stops, neutralize the rudder

You want to stabilize the aircraft's directional control
Holding the rudder after the rotation stops could induce a spin in the opposite direction

Roll wings level

Level wins ensures you are not climbing in a turn
Climbing in a turn decreases vertical lift, and causes unnecessary load factors

Pull the nose up to the horizon

Be careful not to stall the aircraft by being too aggressive but realize that you'll be in a very nose low altitude losing thousands of feet per minute

Add power

You'll need to add power to accelerate to cruise speed
Apply power as necessary to avoid stalling but absolutely apply full power once level

Emergency descent/landing

Clear the area
Choose forced landing area: choose a field and stick with it; best choice may be behind you
Configure aircraft:

No flaps
Carburetor heat on
Throttle to idle
Establish and maintain best glide speed

Engine out checklist:

Carburetor heat on
Fuel shut off valve on
Mixture rich
Primer in and locked

Simulated: squawk 7700, mayday on 121.5
Clear engine using brief applications of power
Forced landing checklist (simulated):

Mixture cutoff
Fuel valve off
Ignition off
Unlatch doors
Master off when landing assured

Maneuver as necessary to reach key point on base
Flaps and slip as necessary to reach aiming point
Maintain ball centered
Look for traffic

Emergency procedures

Power off 180

What ?

An approach and landing made by gliding with the engine idling through a 180o pattern, begun abeam a specified touchdown point on the runway, to a touchdown at or within 200’ beyond that point.

Why?

It instills judgment and procedures necessary for accurately flying the plane, without power, to a safe landing.

How?

Constant checking and adjusting the airplane’s glide path
Clear the area
Configure aircraft: landing checklist approx. 1000 AGL downwind for landing
Throttle to idle abeam touchdown
Establish and maintain best glide speed
Select aim point ahead of touchdown point (compensate for ground effect)
Position and adjust base leg as necessary and compensate for wind
Flaps or forward slip as necessary for landing on touchdown point
Land at touchdown point beyond and within 200’

How to measure? Runway edge lights are spaced 50’
Centerline + gap = 200’

Common errors

Downwind leg too far from runway/landing area
Overextension of downwind leg resulting from tailwind
Inadequate compensation for wind drift on base leg
Skidding turns in an effort to increase gliding distance
Attempting to stretch the glide during undershoot
Premature flap extension
Use of throttle to increase the glide instead of merely clearing the engine
Forcing the airplane onto the runway to avoid overshooting the touchdown

Ground reference maneuvers

8’s on pylon

What?

Consists of a figure eight pattern at a pivotal altitude as two points, or pylons are used as references for turns

Why?

Develops the ability to maneuver the airplane accurately, while dividing your attention between the flight path and the selected points on the ground

How?

Clearing turn
Pre maneuver checklist
Groundspeed²/11.3 = pivotal altitude
Choose pylon, a road with intersections usually works best
Enter on 45º downwind, and wait until the first pylon is under your wing to bank
Control distance with pitch, Elevators are the primary control for holding the pylons

If the pylon moves ahead of your wing, pitch down. If it moves behind, pitch up

Level out on a 45º, Count to 5, bank and choose next pylon

Turns around a point - https://www.boldmethod.com/cfi-tools/turns-around-a-point/

Why?

Ground reference maneuvers develop basic pilot skills, using the ground to gauge deviations
To begin, pilots must understand wind drift
With the effects of winds understood, pilots can practice correcting for it
These training exercises ultimately prepare a pilot for the rectangular course which trains the pilot for the next phase of training, the traffic pattern

How?

Clear the area.
Power set to cruise.
Select an altitude of 600-1000 AGL and pick a reference point.
Determine wind direction: smoke, flags, shiny shore of water, ATIS
Enter on a downwind to one side of the selected point at a distance equal to the desired radius of the turn
Directly downwind and abeam the reference point, roll into the steepest bank to initiate maintaining a constant radius

This will be your highest ground speed
Turn not to exceed 45°

As the turn continues, begin to shallow the bank, as necessary, to continue maintaining a constant radius

Ground speed will decrease

Directly upwind the bank should be at its shallowest

Ground speed will be slowest

As the turn continues, begin to steepen the bank, as necessary, to continue maintaining a constant radius

Ground speed will begin to increase

Continue the maneuver for another set of turns or depart on entry heading, as directed
Upon completion of the maneuver, resume normal cruise, RPM

Common errors

Area not cleared first
No emergency landing area in glide distance
Aircraft not set up for cruise
Erratic altitude
Poor planning, orientation, or division of attention
Uncoordinated

S turns

Why?

S-Turns develop the ability to compensate for drift during turns by flying semi-circles of equal radius on each side of a reference line on the ground.

How?

Determine wind direction

This is important for the entry heading and reference line

Perform clearing turns looking for traffic and ground obstructions
Select a reference line perpendicular to the direction of the wind

Select an area where an emergency landing can be made if necessary
May be performed on any straight line such as a road, fence, or railroad
Select the point on upwind and turn back for a downwind entry

Establish and maintain a cruise airspeed to enter the maneuver between 600-1,000' AGL
Enter on a downwind to one side of the selected point, at a distance equal to the desired radius of the turn
When abeam (perpendicular) or over the reference line (highest ground speed), begin the turn to roll into the upwind

Apply adequate wind-drift correction to track a constant radius turn on each side of the selected reference line

Start with a steep bank, as ground speed is highest
Transition to a moderate angle of bank around 90° as ground speed begins to slow
Shallow rolling out around 180° as ground speed is lowest
Roll wings level at 180° so as to be straight and level directly over and perpendicular to the reference line

When abeam (perpendicular) or over the reference line (lowest ground speed), begin the turn to roll back into the downwind

Start with a shallow bank, as ground speed is lowest
Transition to a moderate angle of bank around 90° as ground speed begins to rise
Steepen the bank angle to roll out around 180° as ground speed is highest
Roll wings level at 180° so as to be straight and level directly over and perpendicular to the reference line

Depart on entry heading and resume normal cruise

Common errors

Failure to adequately clear the area
Poor coordination
Gaining or losing altitude
Misjudging the rate of turn
Faulty correction for drift
Inadequate visual lookout for other aircraft
Inability to divide attention between airplane control and maintaining ground track
Rolling into an angle of bank too quickly will not result in crossing perpendicular to the reference line. (and the opposite)

Rectangular course

Why?

The rectangular course maneuver simulates the airport traffic pattern

How?

Note wind direction and strength, if able

Important for finding the downwind and anticipating ground speed

Perform clearing turns looking for traffic and ground obstructions
Pick a reference rectangle in an area where an emergency landing can be made if necessary

Fields or perpendicular roads are best as they provide reference lines
Distances should be about 1 mile in length and maintained at the same distance throughout the maneuver

Establish and maintain downwind speed and 1,000' AGL throughout the maneuver
Enter the maneuver on a 45° mid-field downwind

Ground speed will increase as you enter the pattern

Turn base at boundary:

Steep bank, not to exceed 45°, transitioning to medium bank as the turn progresses

Turn greater than 90°, to compensate for wind, so as you roll out you have established a crab

GS: Decrease, due to lost tailwind

Turn upwind at boundary:

Medium bank, transitioning shallow as the turn progresses

Turn less than 90°, due to the crab already set prior to your turn

GS: Decrease, you are now flying directly into the wind

Turn crosswind at boundary:

Shallow bank, transitioning to medium as the turn progresses

Turn less than 90° to allow for wind correction

GS: Increase, due to the loss of the complete headwind component

Turn downwind at boundary:

Medium bank, transitioning to a much steeper bank than earlier, not to exceed 45°

Turn more than 90°

GS: Increase, due to the increasing tailwind

Depart the maneuver on a 45° mid-field downwind
Upon completion of the maneuver, resume normal cruise speed

Common errors

Failure to adequately clear the area
Failure to establish proper altitude prior to entry (typically entering the maneuver while descending)
Failure to establish appropriate wind correction angle, resulting in drift
Gaining or losing altitude
Poor coordination (Typically skidding in turns from a downwind heading and slipping in turns from an upwind heading)
Abrupt control usage
Inadequate visual lookout for other aircraft