Lesson plans: Ground Lesson 10: Pilotage, dead reckoning and radio navigation

Pilotage and dead reckoning

Pilotage

Visual navigation relying on maps/ landmarks such as rivers, roads, cities, others
Preflight planning for pilotage begins with obtaining a correct and current chart
Arrange chart so that you can easily see the whole route
Decide the areas you would like to avoid (airspace's, mountains, etc)
Use a plotter to measure the length of your course in NM, and use a pencil to mark the course
Select checkpoints in between departure and destination, you want to always know your location

Dead reckoning

Navigation based on calculations on time, speed, distance, and direction
The compass provides the necessary directional info
Course direction is measured with a plotter
Draw your course on the chart as you would for a pilotage flight, including distance, fuel, other

Flight planning

Do as much as possible on the ground
Make checkpoints
Determine the effects of wind
Right down all frequencies you may need

VFR cruising altitudes

Many factors help decide your altitude

Height above terrain and obstruction
The higher you are the more time you have to find an emergency landing spot

When in level cruising flight at 3000 feet above the surface, you must comply with VFR cruising altitudes rule

VFR aircraft's on heading from 0º to 179º are required to fly at odd thousand-foot altitudes + 500 feet
VFR aircraft's on heading from 180º to 369º, you must fly evens + 500 feet
If you are maneuvering, turning, or changing altitude, the rule does not apply

The reason for this is traffic separation

Flight plan

When you file a flight plan with FSS, a record is made that provides your flight info

Flight plan will be kept on file for 1 hour

Once airborne, you activate your flight plan so FSS can keep track of your ETA
If you do not close or extend your flight plan within 30 minutes after your stated ETA, the FSS will begin a preliminary search by telephone, then notify search and rescue organizations
Flight plan should include provisions to start a search and rescue if you fail to arrive

Use VFR flight plan service provided by the FSS

Lost procedures

5 C’s

Climb

Usually helps you see more of the ground
Improves reception range of your radio and navigation equipment

Communicate

Available facilities

Confess

To ATC

Comply

ATC instructions

Conserve

fuel

VOR navigation

How they work

Very high frequency omnidirectional range
Sends out two different signals. One master and one secondary

Master signal is constant for each radial
Secondary signal rotated about the station

Receiver compares the two signals and can tell you where the selected radial is
Limited to line of sight

Station and radials

360º
Radials are always from the station
Oriented to magnetic north

VOR roughness

Minor CDI roughness brief flag alarm if flying over mountainous terrain

Standard service volumes

Combines vor and directional gyro
Also gives you glide slope

VOR navigation

Station ID

Find the Morse code on sectional or low en-route chart
Press ID button -> turn up volume -> listen to Morse code
During maintenance Morse code removed or send out test signal ( _••••_ )

Intercepting radial

Take the difference between the radial you are on and the radial you want to intercept

On radial 100 and want to intercept radial 120 -> 20º difference
Radial difference * 2 ( not less than 20º and not more than 90º intercept angle)

If flying to the station, always set course to reciprocal radial
Turn into the course

Tracking

Follow the selected radial

If the CDI goes to the left, turn to the left

Remember to correct for wind drift

Homing

Continuously twist the obs knob to center the CDI

Reverse sensing

When the CDI indicates the reverse of normal operations
This will happen to a basic VOR if you set it to the reciprocal of the intended course

Station passage

The CDI will be more sensitive the closer you get to the station
Eventually oscillations and/ or full scale deflection

Cone of confusion
Nav flag may also appear

Station passage is complete with flag flip (to/from)
1 NM from VOR maintain heading

VOR CHECKS

Has to be done every 30 days
VOT - VOR test facility

Transmits a test signal which can be found in the A/fd
Procedure

Tune in frequency in VOR receiver
Center the CDI needle
Should read 180º with a TO indications or 0º with FROM (think blink 182
Maximum error is +/- 4º

VOR receiver checkpoint

Frequency and radial can be found in A/fd
Procedure

Tune in frequency in VOR receiver
Center CDI needle
Should read radial specified in A/fd with a from indication
Max error +/- 4º for ground check
Maximum error +/- 6º for airborne check

Dual VOR check

Used for 2 VOR independent from each other
Maximum error is 4º between 2 receivers

VOR records

Each person making the check must enter the info in the aircraft or other records(91.171)

“D.P.E.S” date, place, error, signature

VOR, VOR DME, AND VORTAC

VOR provides course information
VOR.DME provides course and distance
VORTAC is both VOR and tacan

TACAN is used by military - provides course and distance

DME navigation

Distance measuring equipment

Works on line of site
Aircraft has a DME transmitter that send out radio frequency pulses

A ground facility receives the signals and sends them back to the aircraft
The airborne DME measures time between the signal and translates it into distance

Reliable signal will be received up to 199 NM line of site
Slant range

Distance is measured from your aircraft to the station, not ground distance
The error is greater the higher you are and the closer you are to the station

Frequency pairing plan

You only have to put in the VOR frequency to receive the distance info

This assumes that the station has DME info (VOR/DME, VORTAC, ILS/DME,LOC/DME)

DME is identified by a morse code with a tone slightly higher than the VOR/LOC tone

Heard once every 3 - 4 times the VOR/LOC

NDB navigation

Ground facility

Called NDB - non directional radio beacon
Transmits radio energy in all directions
Frequencies

Not approved for IFR navigation but can be used for VFR
ADF receivers do not have a "flag" to warn the pilot when erroneous bearing information is being displayed
The pilot should continuously monitor the NDB's identification

ADF - automatic direction finder

Equipment in the aircraft
Always points to the antenna
Shows you the relative bearing from the aircraft's magnetic heading to the transmitting station
Can be a fixed card or a moveable card bearing indicator
MH + RB = MB