Ground lesson 4 - Airport operations, charts & airspace

Safety of flight

• Collision avoidance and visual scanning
• 70% of your time should be spent scanning outside 
• Aircrafts
• Weather
• Terrain
• FAA suggests pilots to scan 10º segments for at least 1 second

• Use the horizon to scan for aircrafts to determine their attitude 
• Aircraft above horizon = higher
• Aircraft on horizon = same alt
• Aircraft below horizon = lower
• If there is no relative movement, the aircraft is on the same course
• Airport operations 
• Any operations in the vicinity of an airport
• Exercise extreme caution, continue scans
• Right of way - FAR 91.113 
• Same aircraft head on → both turn to the right
• Same aircraft perpendicular → aircraft to the left turns to the right
• Aircraft in distress → right of way over all
• Clearing turns
• Clearing left and right before taxing/ turning 
• Before a maneuver turn to clear for other aircrafts
• S turns or 180º turns
• Radio call
• Location ( west practice traffic)
• Call sign
• Position 
• Altitude 
• Where we are going
• Location (west practice traffic)
• Minimum safe altitude
• Altitude you must maintain during flight
• Must allow an emergency landing, following an engine failure, without hazard to person or property
• Over congested area
• 1000 feet over any obstacle with a horizontal radius of 2000 feet of your aircraft
• Over uncongested area 
• 500 feet above the surface
• Sparsely populated or over open water areas
• Cannot fly within 500 feet of person, property, vehicle, structure, etc..
• Taxiing in wind
• Strong winds passing over and around the airplane makes it possible for it to roll
• Use the ailerons and elevator to counteract the wind and help you maintain control

• Positive exchange of controls 
• Three way exchange
• “You have controls”
• “I have controls”
• “You have controls”

Airports

• Controlled and uncontrolled
• Controlled airports 
• Have an operating control tower
• Aircrafts must follow instructions issued by ATC
• Two way radio required to operate in controlled airport environment
• Uncontrolled airports
• Control of VFR traffic is not exercised
• Two way radio not required, but advised to be able to transmit intentions to other pilots 
• You determine the active runway, and how to enter and exit
   
• Runway layout
• Main runway aligned with the prevailing wind
• Other runways aligned with the other common wind directions 
• Runway numbers correspond to magnetic north reference 
• Magnetic direction is rounded off to nearest 10º with the last zero omitted 
• Two or more parallel runways will be labeled “L” for left, “R” for right , and “C” for center

 

• Traffic pattern
• Established to ensure that air traffic flows into and out of an airport in an orderly manner 
• Standard are left traffic pattern turns, unless right turns are indicated by visual markings 
• Should be flown at 1000 feet AGL
  
  

• Airport visual aids
• Runway markings 
• Runway numbers 
• Magnetic heading
• Last digit excluded 
• Rounded to nearest 10º
• Based on most common wind condition
• Threshold line
• Where the runway starts
• Threshold marker 
• Number of parallel lines that represent runway width (AIM 2-3-3)
• Displaced threshold 
• Takeoffs and taxi is ok, NO LANDINGS
• Touchdown zone marker 
• 500 feet from the threshold line
• 1,2 or 3 parallel lines
• Aiming zone marker 
• Two white rectangular stripes 1000 feet from the threshold
• Blast Pad/over run area  
• Used for jet wash
• No takeoff,taxi,or landing
• Emergency use only
  

• Taxiway markings 
• Holdshort line 
• Not allowed to cross solid lines without clearance
• Cross dashed line  after landing, then stop if not instructed otherwise
• ILS holdshort 
• Prevents interference with ILS signal
• Non-movement area line
• Marks the border between movement area and non movement area 
• Movement area is the part of the airport where aircraft's takeoff/land
• Airport signs 
• Mandatory instruction signs
• Red background with white letters 
• Runway entrance
• Critical area 
• Area prohibited for aircraft's
• Locations signs 
• Black background with yellow text
• Identifies your location
• Direction signs
• Yellow background with black text
• Always contains arrows
• Direction to taxiway or runway
• Destination signs
• Yellow background with black text
• Always contains arrows 
• Directions to location 
• Terminal, cargo, fuel, parking
• Runway distance signs 
• Black background with white numbers
• Posted along the runway
• Remaining runway distance in thousands of feet

• Ramp area and hand signals
• Where aircraft's are parked and tied down

• Runway incursion avoidance 
• When an aircraft, vehicle, person, or equipment is on the runway without clearance
• No part of the aircraft can cross the solid line of the holdshort line 
• Do not enter or cross the runway unless cleared 
• If in unfamiliar airport
• Hard to see where you are going
• Ask for progressive taxi
• Land and holdshort operations  - LAHSO
• The PIC has to determine if this is possible or not
• PIC is expected to decline his operation if it will compromise safety
• If you accept a LAHSO you should land and exit the runway at the first convenient taxiway
• If go around necessary, maintain separation and notify ATC
• Approach lighting system 
• See TPP’s for different types 
• Dot means running rabbit
• Black means pilot controlled lighting
• Runway lighting
• Visual glide slope indicators
• PAPI/VASI
• Threshold lights
• Bidirectional
• Green at beginning of runway, Red at end of runway
• Runway edge lights 
• High, medium, low intensity lights → HIRL, MIRL, LIRL
• You can usually change intensity by pilot controlled lighting
• Runway centerline lights
• Only instrument precision approaches
• White in the beginning, alternating white/red last 3000 feet, red last 1000 feet
• Runway end identifier lights  - REIL
• Provides rapid and positive identification of the approach end
• Airport beacon and obstruction lights 
• Operational from dusk til dawn and during IFR
• Civil airport → white/green
• Military airport → white white green
• Heliport → white green yellow
• Seaplane → white yellow

Aeronautical charts 

• Chart grid
• Latitude
• Imaginary lines parallel to the equator
• Numbered from 0 to 90 degrees.
• Equator is the 0 degree line, and north-pole is the 90 degree.
• Longitude
• Imaginary lines than run from North pole to South pole.
• Total of 360 degrees around the world
• Prime meridian 0 Degree line = Greenwich, England
• Projections
• Transferring sections of the earth's surface onto a flat char
• Vfr charts 
• Top of chart is true north
• Type of vfr charts
• Sectional - updated every 6 months
• Vfr terminal area chart (TAC) - 
• Similar to sectional
• Mostly for class B airspace
• More detailed
• Updated every 6 months
• World aeronautical chart 
• Similar to sectional
• Covers large area
• Less detailed 
• High fast aircrafts
  
• Chart symbology
• The legend is your tool for deciphering symbols and decoding aeronautical chart info
• The legend is divided into seven categories 
• Symbology for airports
• Airport data
• Radio aids to navigation and communication boxes
• Airport traffic service and airspace info
• Obstructions 
• Topographic info
• Miscellaneous data

• https://www.faa.gov/air_traffic/flight_info/aeronav/digital_products/aero_guide/

Airspaces 

• Classifications
• Controlled and uncontrolled
• Uncontrolled airspace: Class G
• ATC has no authority or responsibility to control air traffic
• Not required to communicate with ATC when operating in class G unless a temporary control tower has been established
• Controlled airspace: Class E, D, C, B, A 
• May be subjected to ATC
• ATC primary function is traffic separation
• ATC primary tool is radar, because of this, the FAR requires you to use a transponder in controlled airspaces
• Class echo
• No communication requirements 
• No equipment required
• Cannot fly if weather is below VFR minimums, unless you are flying IFR
• Can start at
• Surface agl, end at 17,999 agl
• 700 agl, end at 17,999 agl
• 1200 agl, end at 17,999 agl

• Class delta
• Airport that has a control tower, but does not provide radar services 
• Must establish two-way-radio communication with the tower prior to entering the airspace
• Starts at surface, ends at 2,500 agl
• Usually a 4nm radius  
• Equipment
• 2 way radio
• No specific certificate
• When tower is closed, reverts to class E or G
• Class charlie
• ATC provides radar services up to 20 NM from the primary airport
• Inside charlie radar services are mandatory
   
• Starts at the surface, ends at at 4,000 agl (charted in msl)
• Has different altitudes
• 10nm and 5nm radius
• No specific certificate
• Equipment required
• 2 way radio communication
• Mode C transponder in and above charlie up to 10,000 feet
• Class bravo
• Starts at surface, ends at 10,000 msl
• Has different altitudes (shelves)
• Rules
• Private certificate
• Student certificate with proper CFI endorsement (61.95)
• Clearance to enter
• Equip. Required
• Transponder mode C (needed inside mode C veil, inside B, and over 10,000 MSL)
• Class alpha
• Starts at 18,000 msl and ends at FL600 msl
• Is not show on sectional chart
• Equipment required
• 2 way radio
• nav. Equipment
• Transponder mode C
• Rules
• Private license
• Instrument rating
• Clearance to enter

• Weather requirements 

• Special VFR  FAR 91.157
• When weather is below VFR minimum and there is no conflicting IFR traffic, special VFR can be requested from ATC
• Allows you to enter, leave, or operate within most class C and E airspaces
• Visibility must be at least 1 sm and clear of clouds 
• Special use airspace/Other airspace areas 
• Special use airspaces - MC WRAPN
• Military area
• Area where military training and other military maneuvers is being conducted 
• Usually have a specific floor and ceiling
• VFR aircrafts are not prevented from entering active MOA’s
• Controlled firing area
• Activities are suspended immediately when an aircraft is in the area
• Not on the chart
• Warning area
• 3 nm outward from the coast of the US
• Contains activities that may be hazardous to nonparticipating aircraft's
• Restricted area
• Often have invisible hazards to aircraft's
• Permission to fly through must be granted by controlling agency

• Alert area
• High volume of aircraft's
• Be alert

• Prohibited area
• Established for security or other reasons associated with national welfare
• Flight for aircraft is prohibited (must obtain permission to fly through)
• NSA area
• Locations where increased security for ground facilities is required
• Pilots are requested to avoid the area
• NSA can make area prohibited
  
  
   
• Other airspace's
• Military training routes 
• IFR/VFR (IR/VR)
• MTR’s with no segment above 1500 agl will be identified by 4 numbers
• MTR’s with one or more segments above 1500 agl will have 3 numbers
• TFR’s - FAR 91.137
• A NOTAM will be issued designating an area within which TFR’s apply and specify the hazard of conditions requiring their imposition
• TFRs are established to protect persons and property in the air or on the surface, aircrafts are prohibited to fly through
• Emergency air traffic rules
• Established by the FAA immediately after determining that, without such action, the air traffic control system could not operate at the required level of safety and efficiency
• Notam will be issued

 

• Air defense identification zone (ADIZ)
• All aircrafts entering the U.S airspace from outside the country must provide identification prior to entry 
• ADIZ are established to facilitate this identification

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