Ground Lesson 21 (9): Departure charts and procedures

Departure charts

• Obtaining charts
• Departure standards
• Climb at least 200 feet/NM until minimum IFR altitude 
• Cross departure end of runway at least 35 feet AGL
• Climb to 400 feet AGL above departure end of runway before turning 
• Assessment area extends 25NM from airport in non-mountainous and 46NM in mountainous terrain
• Beyond this distance it is the pilot's responsibility for obstacle clearance
  
  
• Must make sure your aircraft is able to perform the climb necessary
  
  
• Instrument Departure Procedures (DPs)
• Purpose 
• Provides transition between departure airport and enroute segment 
• Simplifies clearance delivery 
• Reduces radio congestion 
• Ensures obstacle clearance 
• Makes departure more predictable 
• Controls the flow of traffic
  
  
• Diverse departure assessment area 
• If an aircraft may turn in any direction from a runway within the limits of the assessment area and remain clear of obstacles that runway passes what is called a diverse departure assessment
• No ODP is published.
  
  
• Obstacle Departure Procedures (ODPs)
• Do not need ATC clearance 
• Developed only for obstacle clearance
• Usually textual but can be graphical if it is complex ( tabled “obstacle”)
• As a general rule, ATC will only assign an ODP from a non-towered airport when necessary for traffic separation
• Intended to be used only in the absence of radar vectors or SID
• Standard Instrument Departures (SIDs)
• To reduce congestion and pilot/controller workload
• Always depicted graphically, usually accompanied by explanatory text 
• Developed by ATC based on
• Most frequent transition 
• Noise abatement
• Obstacle clearance
  
  
• RNAV SID’s can only be flown with IFR approved RNAV equipment 
• ATC clearance for a specific SID must be given prior to flying a SID
  
  
• Diverse Vector Area
•  This DVA may be established below the MVA or Minimum IFR Altitude (MIA) in a radar environment at the request of Air Traffic
  
  
• Vector DPs
• ATC provides vectors that start after takeoff
• Continue until you reach filed assigned route or one of the fixes on the chart 
• Does not show departure routes or transitions 
• Usually contains an initial heading and altitude to climb
  
  
• Chart format and symbology

Departure procedures

• Takeoff minimums 
• FAR 91.175 (f)
• Use minimums from commercial operators
• For aircrafts with 2 engines or less,Visibility 1 SM
• For aircrafts with more than 2 engines, visibility ½ 
• Do not depart if weather is so bad that you cannot return to the airport in case of emergency 
• Note the minimum safe altitude 
• Non-standard takeoff minimums 
• This means the minimums are higher than standard
• Indicated by a triangle - T 
• Published in the front of the terminal publications
  
  
• Departure chart
• Obstacle notes
• These are low obstacles within 1 NM of departure runway that penetrate the standard design criteria 
• They would require a higher climb rate than 200 feet/NM
• Instead notes are published so pilots can avoid them
  
  
• Graphic departure procedures
• Textual departure procedures
• Radar departures
• The tower will advise you of a heading to fly
• Might be issued in IFR clearance or just before takeoff
• Coordination of your flight is now responsibility of the controller
  
  
• VFR departures
• Could be an alternate to a departure procedure if conditions permit 
• You are responsible for obstacle clearance and traffic separation 
• Must obtain clearance before entering IMC 
• You can also request “climb in VFR”
  
  
• Selecting a departure method
• Choose departure that will give smoothest transition 
• Make sure your aircraft can handle the required minimums 
• Must be in possession of at least a textual version of the departure
  
  
  
  
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Ground Lesson 22 (10): Enroute charts and procedures

Enroute and area chart

• Enroute charts
• Navaids 
• Localizer is only shown when it can be used to ID a fix
  
  
• Victor airways 
• Even numbers for east/west - odd numbers for north/south
• Some victor airways can share one or more segments
  
  
• MTA/MCA → minimum turning/crossing altitude
• Usually only applies above 10000 feet MSL
• Will be charted by (X) - flag accompanied by a note
  
  
• MEA → minimum enroute altitude 
• when you file a flightplan, you should fly at least this altitude
  
  
• MOCA → minimum obstacle clearance altitude
• Obstacle clearance
• Navigational signal assured within 22nm of VOR
  
  
• OROCA
• Obstacle clearance (1000/2000)
  
  
• Single direction route are indicated by an arrow on the black box with the victor airway number 
• Change over points 
• Given when you should switch to the next VOR at another point than halfway
• They will indicate the distance on both VOR’s
  
  
• Front panel
• Communication

• Radio technique 
• Proper communication is critical in IFR flight
• Work on effective listening 
• Watch out for similar call signs
• Question anything you find confusing or unclear
• Listen before you transmit to not step over other people 
• Think before you transmit 
• read back frequency change 
• State altitude on initial contact 
• ATC can compare reported altitude with transponder
  
  
• Airports

• Civil airports 
• Green symbol → available IAP
• Blue symbol → civil and military approach procedure 
• Brown → no instrument approach
  
  
• Airspace

• Indicated by a box under the airport name 
• Lateral dimensions are only given to class B and C
  
  
• Area charts

Enroute procedures

• Enroute radar procedures

• You will be handed off from “departure” to ARTCC
• Radio communication will be 
• “Aircraft 123, Portland departure, contact Seattle center on 124.2”
• Answer:  Seattle center 124.2, Aircraft 123
  
  
• From there you get handed off between ARTCC controllers 
• Read back frequency change so the controller doesn't worry about lost com.
• Initial contact to Seattle center
• Seattle center, Aircraft 123 level/climbing/descending  1400 for 2300
• This is to verify mode C altitude
  
  
• Reporting procedures

• Reporting procedure at all time 
•  Marvelous VFR 5 - C
  
  

M	Missed approach
A	Airspeed change +/- 10kts or 5% of filed airspeed whichever is greater
R	Reaching a holding point/fix. Report time and altitude
V	VFR on top
E	ETA change =/- 3 mins ***
L	Leaving a holding fix/point
O	Outer marker ***
U	Unforecasted Weather
S	Safety of flight
V	Vacating an altitude
F	Final approach fix ***
R	Radio/nav failure
5	unable to maintain a 500 fpm climb
C	Compulsory reporting fix

• Reporting in non radar coverage 
• Over compulsory reporting point if you don't have radar coverage 
• Outside radar coverage is very rare ( normally radar failure)
  
  
• Enroute navigation using GPS

• Load way-points
  
  
• Air traffic service routes

• Designed for channeling the flow of traffic as necessary for the provision of air traffic services
  
  
• Enroute RNP

• Ground Lesson 16
  
  
• Special use airspace

• Ground Lesson 6
  
  
• Temporary flight restrictions

• Ground Lesson 6
  
  
• IFR cruising and minimum altitudes

• Ground Lesson 6  / chart
  
  
• Descending from the enroute segment

• ATC will give you a descent clearance so you arrive in the approach control airspace 
• AIM 5 - 3 → enroute procedure
  
  
• Reduced Vertical Separation Minimums (RVSM)

• Reduction of vertical space between aircraft from 2,000 to 1,000 feet at flight levels from 29,000 feet up to 41,000 feet
• Implemented as a means to increase airspace capacity and access to more fuel-efficient flight levels
  
  
  
  
  
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Ground lesson 23 (11) - Holding procedure

Holding procedures

• Reasons for a hold
• Spacing
• Bad weather
• Missed approach procedure 
• Leads you to the fix where you hold until further instructions 
• If you can't land for some reason
• Losing glideslope or localizer (full deflection)
• Can't see airport at minimums
  
  
• Points of a hold

• The fix
• NBD, VOR, etc
• Hold always begins at the fix
  
  
• Inbound radial
• The leg is always flown towards the fix
  
  
• Fix end
• The turn from fix to outbound leg
  
  
• Outbound leg
• Starts abeam the fix
• The turn from outbound leg to inbound leg is called outbound end
•  Holding procedure 
• Standard patterns → right turns 
• Draw a line 70º into the hold
• 3 different suggested entries 
• Direct entry
• Teardrop entry  → turn 30º into the hold
• Parallel entry → fly outbound for 1 min then turn into the hold and re-intercept
  
  
• Fly each leg for 1 minute 
• Adjust outbound leg so that inbound leg is 1 minute
  
  
  

• Cross wind correction 

• Use 3x the inbound correction on the outbound
  
  
  
  
• Max holding speeds
• 200 IAS at 6000 MSL and below
• 230 IAS at 6001 MSL to 14000 MSL
• 265 IAS above 14000 MSL
  
  
• ATC holding instructions
• Usually be issued 5 min before the hold
• If there is a chartered hold ATC might say “hold as published” otherwise
• Direction from the fix
• Name of the fix
• Course (from radial)
• Leg length
• Direction of turn
• EFC time
  
  
• Maintain altitude unless instructed otherwise 
• Fly right turns unless left turns are assigned 
• Always report time and altitude when reading holding fix
• “Pdx approach, 4097L, Newberg VOR at 5000, 2300 holding south”
  
  
• EFC time- expect further clearance 
• Don't accept a hold without an EFC time 
• Efc time allows you to leave the holding fix at a specific time if you lose communication
  
  
  
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Ground Lesson 24 (12): Arrival charts and procedures

Arrival charts

• Standard Terminal Arrival Routes (STARs)
• Developed as link between enroute structure and approach procedure 
• Works the same as a departure procedure to reduce workload
• You have to have the arrival chart in your possession to fly it 
• Usually serves more than one airport
  
  
• Interpreting the STAR
• Looks like a departure procedure , but reversed 
• Officially begins at the BOLD segment where all the transitions for the arrival come together 
• All altitudes are in MSL and distances are in NM
• AIM - 5-4-1 STARS
  
  
• Vertical navigation planning
  
  

Arrival procedures

• Preparing for arrival 
• Highest workload
• IMARTHA - reviews the approach
• Listen to the ATIS as soon as possible 
• Set frequencies
  
  
• Altitude 
• ATC will clear you for a specific altitude until established on a published segment of the approach
• Feeder routes are part of the approach when cleared for the approach
  
  
  
  
  
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Ground Lesson 25(13): Approach charts

Approach segments

• Feeder routes
• en route structure to the initial approach fix
• Initial approach segment
• This segment starts at the IAF - initial approach fix 
• The purpose is to align your aircraft with the approach course 
• Can be DME arc, procedure turn, or holding pattern
  
  
• Intermediate approach segment
• Starts at the IF - intermediate fix 
• Designed to position your aircraft for the final descent to the airport 
• Reduce your airspeed to the approach speed and complete FAF briefing (TAMALL)
• Some charts don't show IF
• Starts when you intercept the inbound course after completing the procedure turn
  
  
• Final approach segment
• Starts at the FAF - final approach fix
• Allows you to navigate safely to the airport 
• Can't see the airport environment at the MAP you must execute a missed approach
• If the approach does not have a FAF, it starts when you are established inbound after completing the PT
  
  
• Missed approach segment
• Starts at the MAP
• Allows you to navigate to a point where you can try again or continue to another airport
  
  

Approach chart layout

• Approach name conventions
• HIO VOR/DME C
• “C” stands for the third circling only approach to that airport 
• VOR/DME means you must have both VOR/DME equipment
• BFI RNAV(GPS) Y Runway 13R
• “Y” stands for the second approach of the same type to the same runway
• Starts at “Z” and goes backwards
• BFI also has RNAV(GPS) Z runway 13R
• Heading section
• The “header” of the approach plate 
• Gives the name of the approach, airport name, city, and state
• This title is used by ATC when they clear you for the approach
  
  
• Briefing information
• What you should brief before starting the approach 
• Contains approach course, frequencies, and elevation
  
  
• Minimum safe altitude
• Provides 1000 feet obstacle clearance within 25 NM of the indicated facilities
• (same for mountainous and non mountainous )
  
  
• Divided into sectors
• Does not guarantee NAV or, COMM coverage
• Designed only for use of an emergency
  
  
• Plan view
• Middle section where you see the approach from above 
• Missed approach segment shown with dotted line
  
  
• Profile view
• Bottom section where you see the approach from the side
  
  
• Step-down fix and Visual Descent Points (VDP)
• As you pass certain points you may descend down to a new altitude
• VDP = visual descent point 
• A point from which you can make a normal descent to a landing from the MDA
  
  
• Missed approach icons
• Conversion table
• Rule of thumb → groundspeed/2 * 10 feet/minute
  
  
• Landing minimums
• MDA → minimum descent altitude for non precision approaches
• DA → decision altitude for precision approaches 
• Provides altitude and visibility requirements 
• Circling minimums → you proceed to the runway but circle to land
• On a non-precision approach, you CAN NOT descend below the MDA 
• Based on speed
• Aircraft approach categories
• Based on speed
  
  

• Minimum descent requirements
• Visibility requirements
• Operation below DA/DH or MDA
• Flight visibility is not less than the visibility prescribed in the standard instrument approach
• Except for a Category II or Category III approach at least one of the following visual references for the intended runway is distinctly visible and identifiable to the pilot
• The approach light system, except that the pilot may not descend below 100 feet above the touchdown zone elevation using the approach lights as a reference unless the red terminating bars or the red side row bars are also distinctly visible and identifiable.
• The threshold.
• The threshold markings.
• The threshold lights.
• The runway end identifier lights.
• The visual glideslope indicator.
• The touchdown zone or touchdown zone markings.
• The touchdown zone lights.
• The runway or runway markings.
• The runway lights.
  
  
• Inoperative components
• The lowest landing minimums are authorized only when all components are operational
• When on component is inop. You must increase altitude and/or visibility 
• More than one component is inop. Apply the greatest increase required by any single inop component
• When glide slope becomes inop. Use LOC minimums 
• Inop. component table in TPP’s
  
  

Approach chart layout – airport chart

• Heading and communications sections
• Plan view and additional runway information
• Takeoff and alternative minimums .

Ground Lesson 26 (14): Approach procedures

Approach procedures

• Preparing for the approach
• Preflight
• IMARTHA
• 6T’s - each fix
  
  
• Approach chart review
• IMARTHA
  
  
• Approach clearance
• You must be cleared for the approach before executing
  
  
• Executing the approach
• You must have at least a textual approach plate with you to execute the approach
  
  
• Straight-in approach
• Use of ATC radar for approaches
• Approaches which require a course reversal
• Used when necessary to reverse your direction to align aircraft with the final approach course 
• If a procedure turn is charted, you must fly the procedure turn
• Exceptions 
• Controller clears you for a straight in
• “No PT”
• Vectors to final
• Timed approach from a holding fix
• Hold in lieu
  
  
• Timed approaches from a holding fix
• You are given a time  to depart the holding fix inbound
• Adjust your holding pattern to leave the fix at the given time
  
  
• Final approach
• Tamall
• Start looking for the runway
  
  
• Circling approaches
• Circling from the final approach course to reach your desired runway
• Must remain at or above circling MDA until you can make a normal descent for landing
• Must remain 1.3 NM radius from the end of all runways in “category A”
  
  
• Sidestep maneuver
• May be necessary where there  are two parallel runways
• Follow approach course to one runway then sidestep to the other as soon as possible when in sight
  
  
• Missed approach procedures
• Execute when over the missed approach point and runway not in sight → Fly to the hold
  
  
• Contact approach (AIM 5 - 4 - 25)
• Something you can request if you are clear of clouds and 1 SM visibility 
• ATC can't initiate it, you must request it 
• Used in lieu with an IAP, you can proceed to land in visual conditions
• You are responsible for obstacle clearance 
• ATC provides separation from IFR and SVFR traffic, not VFR
  
  
• Visual approach (AIM 5 - 4 -23)
• IFR procedure that authorizes a pilot to proceed visually and clear of clouds 
• ATC can assign it or you can request it 
• You must have airport or proceeding identified aircraft in sight 
• Weather must be at least 1000 foot ceilings and 3 SM visibility 
• VFR cloud clearance not applicable 
• No missed approach, only go around
• If you report proceeding aircraft in sight, you are responsible for traffic separation
  
  
• Approach types 
• Precision approach
• ILS: instrument landing system
• PAR: precision approach radar 
• MLS: microwave landing system (none in USA since 2008)
  
  
• Non-precision approach
• LOC → localizer
• VOR → vhf omnidirectional range 
• NBD → non directional radio beacon 
• ASR → airport surveillance radar 
• LDA → localizer type directional AID
• SDF → simplified directional facility 
• RNAV → area navigation
  
  
• APV - approach with vertical guidance
• Does not meet precision approach standards 
• RNAV
• LPV → localizer performance with vertical guidance 
• Lnav/Vnav → lateral/vertical navigation 
• baro-Vnav → uses aircraft's altimeter to compute and present a glide path to the pilot
  
  
  
  
  
  
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Ground Lesson 27 (15): VOR and NDB approaches

VOR and NDB approaches

• VOR approach procedures
• Usually easier to fly, but less precise
• MDA’s range from 500 feet - 1000 feet above TDZ(touchdown zone)
• Two types
• Off airport facility 
• The VOR is not placed at the airport
• On airport facility
• The VOR is placed at the airport
  
  
• VOR/DME approach
• Do you need DME equipment if the approach titles VOR/DME
• Yes, otherwise it would say “OR”
  
  
• Can you use GPS for DME
• Yes, AIM 1-2-3 allows this
  
  
• Some VOR approaches still provide DME information, but DME is not required (VOR)
  
  
• NDB approach procedures
• Similar to a VOR approach 
• Accuracy depends on your skill using ADF navigation
  
  
• Radar vectors to the approach
• It is pretty common to get vectors to final 
• Better for both you and the controller 
• Twist OBS to final approach course 
• Only do a procedure turn if ATC clears you to do it
  
  
• VDP - visual descent point 
• A point where you can begin a normal descent from the MDA to the runway, if you have visual req.
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
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Ground Lesson 28 (16): ILS approaches

ILS approaches

• ILS categories and minimums
• Category 1
• Basic ILS approach
• Requires only that you are instrument rated and current
  
  
• Category 2/ category 3
• Typically provides lower minimums
• Requires special certification for pilots, aircraft and air/ground equipment
  
  
• ILS components
• Localizer 
• Glideslope
• Approach lights 
• Marker beacon
  
  
• Localizer 
• Provides lateral guidance
• Placed on the departure end of the runway
• More sensitive on the back course
  
  
• The signal represents only one magnetic course to the runway
• Regardless of what course you select, the CDI will indicate the same off course
• This can be compared to GPS navigation and cid indication
• Always set to the approach course for easier guidance
  
  
• You will get reverse sensing if you set and HSI/VOR to the inbound localizer back course
• Always set to the inbound front course
  
  
• Full deflection is 2.5º
• 4x more accurate than a VOR(10º full deflection)
• Also more sensitive CDI
  
  
• Signal is provided up to 4500 feet
  
  
  
  
• Glide slope 
• When you set the LOC frequency you automatically get the glide slope 
• 0.7º full deflection 
• Usually works up to 10 NM and usually a 3º glide slope, but can be different, depends on terrain
  
  
  
  
• Marker beacons
• Used to help you ID a position on the approach 
• Usually only two marker beacon associated with a normal ILS.
• Outer marker (FAF)
• Middle marker - DA
• Inner marker
• Back course marker
  
  
• When you fly over a marker, you will receive a light and sound
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
• Compass locator 
• low power NBD transmitter installed together with the OM and MM on some ILS approaches
• Inoperative components
• The lowest landing minimums are authorized only when all components are operational
• When on component is inop. You must increase altitude and/or visibility 
• More than one component is inop. Apply the greatest increase required by any single inop component
• When glide slope becomes inop. Use LOC minimums 
• Inop. component table in TPP’s
  
• Flying the ILS
• ID the ILS/LOC frequency
• Intercept the localizer 
• Maintain localizer and glideslope centered
  
• Straight-in (NoPT) ILS approach
  
• ILS approach with course reversal
• Fly procedure turn/hold, then intercept the LOC
  
• ILS/DME approach
  
• Radar vectors to ILS final approach course
• ATC will vector you to the FAF
  
• ILS approaches to parallel runways
• Simultaneous converging instrument approach
• Localizer approach
• LDA - localizer type directional AID
• More precise than SDF
• If not aligned with the runway, may still provide straight in if less than 30º off
• Limited approaches have glide slope
  
• SDF - simplified directional facility 
• Localizer type, may be wider(16 or 12 degrees) - less precise 
• May or may not be aligned with runway 
• No glide slope
  
• Localizer back course approach .

Ground Lesson 29 (17): RNAV approaches

RNAV approaches

• Approach design
• Basic T design
• Could be other designs based on terrain
• FAF is usually 5 NM from threshold 
• MAP usually at the threshold, and fly over point 
• Common fail during stage checks and check rides 
• You have to fly over that point before starting a turn
• You can start climbing before
  
  
• Terminal Arrival Area (TAA)
• Provides transition from the en route structure to the terminal environment for arriving aircraft equipped with Flight Management System (FMS) and/or Global Positioning System (GPS)
  
  
• Waypoints
• Fly over and fly by
  
  
• Required navigation performance (RNP)
• Ground Lesson : Radio navigation
  
  
• GPS approaches
• Two major category 
• Overlay
• Based on a ground based NAVAID like a VOR
• This is when the title says “VOR or GPS”
  
  
• Stand alone 
• Designed only for GPS
• Usually offers more effective routing
• Use the basic T structure when possible
  
  
• Lateral Navigation/Vertical Navigation (LNAV/VNAV)
• Ground Lesson: Approach procedures
  
  
• VNAV descent profile Approach with Vertical Guidance (APV)
• Ground Lesson: Approach procedures
  
  
• Precision approaches
• Ground Lesson: Approach procedures
  
  
• GPS equipment requirements
• Ground Lesson : Radio navigation
• GPS must be IFR approved 
• That info can be found in the manual
  
  
• Aircraft's must be equipped with an approved and alternate means of navigation
  
  
• Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM)
• Ground Lesson : Radio navigation
  
  
• Navigation database
• Ground Lesson : Radio navigation
  
  
• GPS navigation considerations
• Alternate airport must have other than GPS approach
• The approach must say GPS to be able to use your GPS for the approach
• Radar vectors to a GPS approach
• Go to GPS procedure page and activate vectors to final
  
  
• Radar vectors to a GPS approach

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